Prevalence of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Among Students with Learning Disabilities
Downloads
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a common developmental disorder worldwide, occurring among children and adolescents across cultures and societies. ADHD manifests itself in difficulties with concentration, distraction, hyperactivity, and impulsive behavior. ADHD poses a challenge in school settings, affecting students' ability to follow lessons, adhere to instructions, and complete academic tasks. Omani schools are witnessing cases of ADHD, which calls for educational and health attention to develop effective strategies to reduce the prevalence of ADHD among school students. Therefore, this study aimed to identify the prevalence of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) among Omani students with learning disabilities (LDs). A descriptive survey design was employed, with a sample of 861 students with LDs from different governorates in Oman. To assess ADHD symptoms, a standardized scale was developed based on the criteria outlined in the fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5). The final version of the scale comprised 25 items distributed across two core domains: Inattention and Hyperactivity/Impulsivity. Findings revealed that 28% of students with LDs met the criteria for ADHD, with Inattention being the predominant subtype (58%). ADHD was more prevalent among male students (73%) and was most commonly observed in students in grades 1-4 (75%). Additionally, 63% of ADHD cases were identified in students with Arabic language difficulties, particularly in reading and writing. The study highlights the need for systematic ADHD screening among students with LDs and recommends the adoption of the developed scale for early identification and intervention.
Downloads
[1] Mahmoud Al-Zoubi, S. (2024). Prag-matic Language of Students with Learning Disabilities: Cross-Cultural Research. Qubahan Academic Journal , 4(2), 355–366. doi:10.48161/qaj.v4n2a611.
[2] Orim, S. O., Udie, L. I., Assam, A. E., & Ekaette, F. S. (2023). Understanding the Challenges of Learning Disabilities: The Information Processing Theory Perspective. International Journal of Educational Research, 12(1), 73.
[3] Al-Adawi, F., Al-Zoubi, S. M., Kazem, A. M., & Kalbani, Y. K. Al. (2024). Evaluating the Quality of Learning Disabilities Program. Journal of Educational and Psychological Studies, 18(2), 226–234. doi:10.53543/jeps.vol18iss2pp226-234.
[4] Al-Thamali, A. (2020). Learning disabilities in mathematics among resource room students from the perspective of teachers in Taif. International Interdisciplinary Journal of Education, 9(1), 61–73.
[5] Pizzigallo, E., Cornoldi, C., Buono, S., Città, S., Viola, F., & Toffalini, E. (2023). The Intellectual Profile of Adults with Specific Learning Disabilities. Journal of Intelligence, 11(12), 223. doi:10.3390/jintelligence11120223.
[6] Gilmour, A. F., Fuchs, D., & Wehby, J. H. (2019). Are Students With Disabilities Accessing the Curriculum? A Meta-Analysis of the Reading Achievement Gap Between Students With and Without Disabilities. Exceptional Children, 85(3), 329–346. doi:10.1177/0014402918795830.
[7] Sofologi, M., Kougioumtzis, G. A., Efstratopoulou, M., Skoura, E., Sagia, S., Karvela, S., Salli, P. M., Makri, E., & Bonti, E. (2021). Specific Learning Disabilities and Psychosocial Difficulties in Children. Advances In Higher Education and Professional Development Book Series, 31–54. doi:10.4018/978-1-7998-7359-4.ch002.
[8] Al-Zoubi, S. M. (2021). Prevalence of Scotopic Sensitivity Syndrome among Arab Students with and without Learning Disabilities. International Journal of Early Childhood Special Education, 13(2), 299–305. doi:10.9756/INT-JECSE/V13I2.211065.
[9] Miranda, A., Presentación, M. J., Siegenthaler, R., Colomer, C., & Pinto, V. (2011). Comorbidity between attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and reading disabilities: Implications for assessment and treatment. Advances in Learning and Behavioral Disabilitiesm 24, 171–211. doi:10.1108/S0735-004X(2011)0000024010.
[10] Al-Mamari, W. S., Emam, M. M., Al-Futaisi, A. M., & Kazem, A. M. (2015). Comorbidity of learning disorders and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in a sample of Omani schoolchildren. Sultan Qaboos University Medical Journal, 15(4), e528–e533. doi:10.18295/squmj.2015.15.04.015.
[11] Rubia, K. (2018). Cognitive neuroscience of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and its clinical translation. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 12. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2018.00100.
[12] Ringer, N., Wilder, J., Scheja, M., & Gustavsson, A. (2020). Managing children with challenging behaviours. Parents’ meaning-making processes in relation to their children’s ADHD diagnosis. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education, 67(4), 376–392. doi:10.1080/1034912X.2019.1596228.
[13] Shaw, P., Malek, M., Watson, B., Sharp, W., Evans, A., & Greenstein, D. (2012). Development of cortical surface area and gyrification in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 72(3), 191–197. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2012.01.031.
[14] APA. (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. American Psychiatric Association (APA), Washington, D.C., United States. doi:10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596.
[15] Al-Zoubi, S., & Al-Qahtani, M. The effects of token reinforcement on reducing symptoms of attention deficit hyperactivities disorders among students with learning disabilities. Jordan Journal of Educational Sciences, 11(3), 373–386.
[16] Kelly, C. A., Kelly, C., & Taylor, R. (2024). Review of the Psychosocial Consequences of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) in Females. European Journal of Medical and Health Sciences, 6(1), 10–20. doi:10.24018/ejmed.2024.6.1.2033.
[17] De La Peña, I. C., Pan, M. C., Thai, C. G., & Alisso, T. (2020). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder predominantly inattentive subtype/presentation: Research progress and translational studies. Brain Sciences, 10(5), 292. doi:10.3390/brainsci10050292.
[18] Felt, B. T., Biermann, B., Christner, J. G., Kochhar, P., & Van Harrison, R. (2014). Diagnosis and management of ADHD in children. American Family Physician, 90(7), 456–464.
[19] Issa, A., Mussa, Y., Bakhiet, S., Abdelrasheed, N., Alders, A., Arandas, N., & Essa, Y. (2025). The Effectiveness of the Play Attention6 Program in Reducing Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) in a Sample of Students with Special Needs. Psychology and Behavioral Sciences, 14(3), 61–69. doi:10.11648/j.pbs.20251403.12.
[20] Visser, S. N., Danielson, M. L., Bitsko, R. H., Holbrook, J. R., Kogan, M. D., Ghandour, R. M., Perou, R., & Blumberg, S. J. (2014). Trends in the parent-report of health care provider-diagnosed and medicated attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: United States, 2003-2011. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 53(1), 34–46 2. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2013.09.001.
[21] Al Azzam, M., Al Bashtawy, M., Tubaishat, A., Batiha, A. M., & Tawalbeh, L. (2017). Prevalence of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder among school-aged children in Jordan. Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal, 23(7), 486–491. doi:10.26719/2017.23.7.486.
[22] Abbasi, L. N., Mazzawi, T., Abasi, L., Haj Ali, S., Alqudah, A., & Al-Taiar, H. (2023). The Prevalence and Associated Factors of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Among Primary School Children in Amman, Jordan. Cureus, 15(4), 37856. doi:10.7759/cureus.37856.
[23] Young, S., Adamo, N., Ásgeirsdóttir, B. B., Branney, P., Beckett, M., Colley, W., Cubbin, S., Deeley, Q., Farrag, E., Gudjonsson, G., Hill, P., Hollingdale, J., Kilic, O., Lloyd, T., Mason, P., Paliokosta, E., Perecherla, S., Sedgwick, J., Skirrow, C., … Woodhouse, E. (2020). Females with ADHD: An expert consensus statement taking a lifespan approach providing guidance for the identification and treatment of attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder in girls and women. BMC Psychiatry, 20(1), 404. doi:10.1186/s12888-020-02707-9.
[24] Salgotra, K., Khullar, V., Singh, H. P., & Khan, S. A. (2021). Diagnosis of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. International Journal of Arts, Humanities and Social Sciences, 3, 31–44. doi:10.4018/978-1-7998-7511-6.ch003.
[25] Al-Ghannami, S. S., Al-Adawi, S., Ghebremeskel, K., Cramer, M. T., Hussein, I. S., Min, Y., Jeyaseelan, L., Al-Sibani, N., Al-Shammakhi, S. M., Al-Mamari, F., & Dorvlo, A. S. S. (2018). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and parental factors in school children aged nine to ten years in Muscat, Oman. Oman Medical Journal, 33(3), 193–199. doi:10.5001/omj.2018.37.
[26] Salari, N., Ghasemi, H., Abdoli, N., Rahmani, A., Shiri, M. H., Hashemian, A. H., Akbari, H., & Mohammadi, M. (2023). The global prevalence of ADHD in children and adolescents: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Italian Journal of Pediatrics, 49(1), 1–12. doi:10.1186/s13052-023-01456-1.
[27] Stark, S., Geertsema, S., Le Roux, M., & Bothma, E. (2022). Investigating the prevalence and comorbidity of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and developmental dyslexia in learners in a South African practice. South African Journal of Childhood Education, 12(1), 1085. doi:10.4102/SAJCE.V12I1.1085.
[28] Hart, S. A., Petrill, S. A., Willcutt, E., Thompson, L. A., Schatschneider, C., Deater-Deckard, K., & Cutting, L. E. (2010). Exploring How Symptoms of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Are Related to Reading and Mathematics Performance: General Genes, General Environments. Psychological Science, 21(11), 1708–1715. doi:10.1177/0956797610386617.
[29] DuPaul, G. J., Gormley, M. J., & Laracy, S. D. (2013). Comorbidity of LD and ADHD: Implications of DSM-5 for Assessment and Treatment. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 46(1), 43–51. doi:10.1177/0022219412464351.
[30] FND. (2014). The state of learning disabilities: Facts, trends and emerging Issues. Family Network on Disabilities (FND), Florida, United States.
[31] Kofler, M. J., Singh, L. J., Soto, E. F., Chan, E. S. M., Miller, C. E., Harmon, S. L., & Spiegel, J. A. (2020). Working memory and short-term memory deficits in ADHD: A bifactor modeling approach. Neuropsychology, 34(6), 686–698. doi:10.1037/neu0000641.
[32] Alqisayrin, E. M. (2014). Voluntary and extracurricular activities to reduce attention deficit hyperactivity among students with learning difficulties. Life Science Journal, 11(4), 177–187.
[33] Poon, K., & Ho, C. S. H. (2016). Risk-taking propensity and sensitivity to punishment in adolescents with attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder symptoms and/or reading disability. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 53–54(9), 296–304. doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2016.02.017.
[34] Tourjman, V., Louis-Nascan, G., Ahmed, G., DuBow, A., Côté, H., Daly, N., Daoud, G., Espinet, S., Flood, J., Gagnier-Marandola, E., Gignac, M., Graziosi, G., Mansuri, Z., & Sadek, J. (2022). Psychosocial Interventions for Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis by the CADDRA Guidelines Work GROUP. Brain Sciences, 12(8), 1023. doi:10.3390/brainsci12081023.
[35] Somaily, H., Al Zoubi, S., & Bani Abdel Rahman, M. (2012). Parents Of Students With Learning Disabilities Attitudes Towards Resource Room. International Interdisciplinary Journal of Education, 1(1),1-5. doi:10.36752/1764-001-001-001.
[36] Secnik, K., Swensen, A., & Lage, M. J. (2005). Comorbidities and costs of adult patients diagnosed with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. PharmacoEconomics, 23(1), 93–102. doi:10.2165/00019053-200523010-00008.
[37] Hallahan, Daniel P., dan J. M. K. (2024). Exceptional Learners: An Introduction to Special Education. Allyn and Bacon, Pearson, Boston, United States.
[38] Cantwell, D. P., & Baker, L. (1991). Association between attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder and learning disorders. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 24(2), 88–95. doi:10.1177/002221949102400205.
[39] Lonergan, A., Doyle, C., Cassidy, C., MacSweeney Mahon, S., Roche, R. A. P., Boran, L., & Bramham, J. (2019). A meta-analysis of executive functioning in dyslexia with consideration of the impact of comorbid ADHD. Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 31(7), 725–749. doi:10.1080/20445911.2019.1669609.
[40] Gnanavel, S., Sharma, P., Kaushal, P., & Hussain, S. (2019). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and comorbidity: A review of literature. World Journal of Clinical Cases, 7(17), 2420–2426. doi:10.12998/wjcc.v7.i17.2420.
[41] Capano, L., Minden, D., Chen, S. X., Schachar, R. J., & Ickowicz, A. (2008). Mathematical learning disorder in school-age children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 53(6), 392–399. doi:10.1177/070674370805300609.
[42] Crisci, G., Caviola, S., Cardillo, R., & Mammarella, I. C. (2021). Executive Functions in Neurodevelopmental Disorders: Comorbidity Overlaps Between Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorder and Specific Learning Disorders. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 15, 594234. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2021.594234.
[43] Beatriz-Afonso, A., & Cruz-Jesus, F. (2024). Unraveling the Myths of Rural vs. Urban Academic Achievement Drivers. Emerging Science Journal, 8(6), 2312–2327. doi:10.28991/ESJ-2024-08-06-010.
[44] Alawamreh, H. (2022). An Electronic Program based on The Quality Matters TM Rubric Standards (QM) and its Impact on Reading Achievement and Executive Functions among Students with Reading Disabilities and Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorder. Dirasat: Human and Social Sciences, 49(5), 167–182. doi:10.35516/HUM.V49I5.2816.
[45] Daley, D., & Birchwood, J. (2010). ADHD and academic performance: Why does ADHD impact on academic performance and what can be done to support ADHD children in the classroom? Child: Care, Health and Development, 36(4), 455–464. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2214.2009.01046.x.
[46] Attoe, D. E., & Climie, E. A. (2023). Miss. Diagnosis: A Systematic Review of ADHD in Adult Women. Journal of Attention Disorders, 27(7), 645–657. doi:10.1177/10870547231161533.
[47] Wadaa, N. (2013). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder among primary school students. Journal of Educational and Psychological Sciences, 103, 496-534.
[48] Betts, J., Mckay, J., Maruff, P., & Anderson, V. (2006). The development of sustained attention in children: The effect of age and task load. Child Neuropsychology, 12(3), 205–221. doi:10.1080/09297040500488522.
[49] Al-Saedi, Z., Alharbi, A., Nmnkany, A., Alzubaidi, B., Alansari, A., Alhuzali, M., & Shatla, M. (2023). Prevalence of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder among children in Makkah region, Saudi Arabia. Cureus, 15(3), e35967. doi:10.7759/cureus.35967.
[50] Alzaben, F. N., Sehlo, M. G., Alghamdi, W. A., Tayeb, H. O., Khalifa, D. A., Mira, A. T., Alshuaibi, A. M., Alguthmi, M. A., Derham, A. A., & Koenig, H. G. (2018). Prevalence of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and comorbid psychiatric and behavioral problems among primary school students in western Saudi Arabia. Saudi Medical Journal, 39(1), 52–58. doi:10.15537/smj.2018.1.21288.
[51] Aljadani, A. H., Alshammari, T. S., Sadaqir, R. I., Alrashede, N. O. E., Aldajani, B. M., Almehmadi, S. A., Altuhayni, A. S., & Abouzed, M. A. (2023). Prevalence and Risk Factors of Attention Deficit- Hyperactivity Disorder in the Saudi Population: A Systematic Review and Meta.analysis. Saudi Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, 11(2), 126–134. doi:10.4103/sjmms.sjmms_528_22.
[52] Al-Shammari, A. (2017). The effectiveness of social stories in reducing attention deficit hyperactivity disorder among students with learning disabilities. Journal of Special Education, 19, 183-246.
[53] Al-Shakili, H. (2021). Prevalence of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder among Omani students with learning disabilities. Master’s thesis, Sultan Qaboos University, Seeb, Oman.
[54] Jangmo, A., Stålhandske, A., Chang, Z., Chen, Q., Almqvist, C., Feldman, I., Bulik, C. M., Lichtenstein, P., D’Onofrio, B., Kuja-Halkola, R., & Larsson, H. (2019). Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder, School Performance, and Effect of Medication. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 58(4), 423-432. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2018.11.014.
[55] Al-Khateeb, J., & Bani Milhem, O. (2018). The effect of using dramatized curricula on achievement and reducing attention distraction among students with math learning disabilities. Jordan Journal of Educational Sciences, 14(4), 367-377.
[56] Lin, L., Li, N., & Zhao, S. (2025). The effect of intelligent monitoring of physical exercise on executive function in children with ADHD. Alexandria Engineering Journal, 122, 355–363. doi:10.1016/j.aej.2025.02.095.
[57] Hossain, M. B., Himel, M. A. I., Rahim, M. A., Mahmood, S., Miah, A. S. M., & Shin, J. (2025). Classification of ADHD and Healthy Children Using EEG Based Multi-Band Spatial Features Enhancement. arXiv Preprint, arXiv:2504.04664. doi:10.48550/arXiv.2504.04664.
- This work (including HTML and PDF Files) is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
