Driving Forces Shaping Gig Economy Perceptions in Mongolia: A Multifactorial PLS-SEM Approach
Downloads
The gig economy, characterized by flexible, task-based, and technology-driven work, has become an increasingly important aspect of modern labor markets, especially in emerging economies. This study aims to assess the perceptions of the gig economy in Mongolia by examining the influence of five main factors: economic, social, technological, personal, and work-environmental. Using the Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modelling (PLS-SEM) framework, data were collected through a structured questionnaire (Likert Scale) distributed to 43 participants in Mongolia. The results revealed mixed findings across the hypothesized relationships. Economic factors significantly influenced perceptions of the gig economy (H1: β = 0.207, p = 0.014), but their impact on the gig work environment was not supported (H1a: β = 0.339, p = 0.069). Social factors did not significantly influence gig economy perceptions (H2: β = 0.254, p = 0.111), but they had a positive impact on the gig work environment (H2a: β = 0.431, p = 0.023). Technological factors positively influenced gig economy perceptions (H3: β = 0.035, p = 0.042). However, personal factors did not have a significant impact (H4: β = 0.251, p = 0.116). Finally, the gig work environment positively influenced perceptions of the gig economy (H5: β = 0.247, p = 0.008). These findings highlight the multifaceted and complex nature of gig economy perceptions in Mongolia, highlighting the importance of economic and technological factors as well as the role of the work environment in shaping overall perceptions. This study contributes to a deeper understanding of the driving forces behind gig economy perceptions in emerging economies such as Mongolia.
Downloads
[1] Lehdonvirta, V. (2018). Flexibility in the gig economy: managing time on three online piecework platforms. New Technology, Work and Employment, 33(1), 13–29. doi:10.1111/ntwe.12102.
[2] Peetz, D. (2019). The realities and futures of work. ANU Press, Canberra, Australia. doi:10.22459/RFW.2019.
[3] Hickson, J. (2024). Freedom, domination and the gig economy. New Political Economy, 29(2), 321–336. doi:10.1080/13563467.2023.2254712.
[4] Salmah, E., Astuti, E., & Harsono, I. (2024). Employee Engagement in the Gig Economy. Management Studies and Business Journal (PRODUCTIVITY), 1(1), 116–122. doi:10.62207/1e5dd842.
[5] Sankararaman, G., Natarajan, R., Rengarajan, V., Vembu, N., & Indhumathi, D. (2024). Gig economy's impact on workforce dynamics and economic resilience. Educational Administration: Theory and Practice, 30(6), 1627-1634. doi:10.53555/kuey.v30i6.5561.
[6] Malik, M. R., & Chakraborty, A. (2021). Gig Economy and Artificial Intelligence. Empirical Economics Letters, 20 (Special Issue 2.), 23-29
[7] Wood, A. J., Graham, M., Lehdonvirta, V., & Hjorth, I. (2019). Good Gig, Bad Gig: Autonomy and Algorithmic Control in the Global Gig Economy. Work, Employment and Society, 33(1), 56–75. doi:10.1177/0950017018785616.
[8] Zeid, R., Alrayess, D., Ajwad, M. I., Soytas, M. A., & Rivera, N. (2024). The Gig Economy and the Future of Work: Global Trends and Policy Directions for Non-Standard Forms of Employment. World Bank, Washington, United States. doi:10.1596/41755.
[9] ILO. (2024). Expansion of the Gig and Platform Economy in India. International Labour Organization (ILO), Geneva, Switzerland.
[10] Torpey, E., & Hogan, A. (2016). Working in a gig economy: career outlook. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Washington, United States.
[11] De Ruyter, A., & Brown, M. (2019). The Gig Economy. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom. doi:10.1017/9781788210065.
[12] Graham, M., & Woodcock, J. (2019). The gig economy: a critical introduction. Polity, 54, Cambridge, United Kingdom.
[13] Sharif, I., & Qiang, C. Z. (2024). The Promise and Peril of Online Gig Work in Developing Countries. World Bank, Washington, United States.
[14] World Bank. (2023). Demand for Online Gig Work Rapidly Rising in Developing Countries. World Bank, Washington, United States.
[15] CEIC Data. (2022). Mongolia Real GDP Growth. Available online: https://www.ceicdata.com/en/indicator/mongolia/real-gdp-growth (accessed on July 2025).
[16] World Bank. (2022). Impactful Reforms for Mongolia’s Economic Recovery. World Bank, Washington, United States. Available online: https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/099245106302220556/pdf/P17746306d76380a0998e07f0aebc1651f.pdf (accessed on July 2025).
[17] Wan, Z., Zhang, L., Wang, L., & Zhang, F. (2024). Navigating autonomy: unraveling the dual influence of job autonomy on workplace well-being in the gig economy. Frontiers in Psychology, 15. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1369495.
[18] Kurian, J. S., & Bindu Madhavi, N. (2024). Navigating the gig economy: exploring challenges and motivations for the wellbeing of Gen Y and Gen Z gig workers. Cogent Psychology, 11(1). doi:10.1080/23311908.2024.2357458.
[19] Salmon, P. M., KC, B., Irwin, B. G., Brennan, C. J., & Read, G. J. M. (2023). What influences gig economy delivery rider behaviour and safety? a systems analysis. Safety Science, 166, 106263. doi:10.1016/j.ssci.2023.106263.
[20] Tripathi, M. A., Tripathi, R., & Yadav, U. S. (2022). Identifying the critical factors of physical gig economy usage. International Journal of Health Sciences, 4236–4248. doi:10.53730/ijhs.v6ns4.9553.
[21] Himani Srihita, R., Goli, G., Rajyalaxmi, M., & Gobinath, R. (2025). “Transformative dynamics of the gig economy: Technological impacts, worker well-being and global research trends.” International Journal of Engineering Business Management, 17, 18479790241310362,. doi:10.1177/18479790241310362.
[22] Apouey, B., Roulet, A., Solal, I., & Stabile, M. (2020). Gig Workers during the COVID-19 Crisis in France: Financial Precarity and Mental Well-Being. Journal of Urban Health, 97(6), 776–795. doi:10.1007/s11524-020-00480-4.
[23] Banik, N., & Padalkar, M. (2021). The spread of gig economy: Trends and effects. Foresight and STI Governance, 15(1), 19–29. doi:10.17323/2500-2597.2021.1.19.29.
[24] Gandini, A. (2019). Labour process theory and the gig economy. Human Relations, 72(6), 1039–1056. doi:10.1177/0018726718790002.
[25] Berger, T., Frey, C. B., Levin, G., & Danda, S. R. (2019). Uber happy? Work and wellbeing in the ‘Gig Economy.’ Economic Policy, 34(99), 429–477. doi:10.1093/EPOLIC/EIZ007.
[26] Valente, E., Patrus, R., & Córdova Guimarães, R. (2019). Sharing economy: becoming an Uber driver in a developing country. Revista de Gestao, 26(2), 143–160. doi:10.1108/REGE-08-2018-0088.
[27] Hornuf, L., & Vrankar, D. (2022). Hourly Wages in Crowdworking: A Meta-Analysis. Business and Information Systems Engineering, 64(5), 553–573. doi:10.1007/s12599-022-00769-5.
[28] Verick, S. S. (2023). The Challenge of Youth Employment: New Findings and Approaches. Indian Journal of Labour Economics, 66(2), 421–437. doi:10.1007/s41027-023-00438-5.
[29] Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50(2), 179–211. doi:10.1016/0749-5978(91)90020-T.
[30] Jabagi, N., Croteau, A. M., Audebrand, L. K., & Marsan, J. (2019). Gig-workers’ motivation: thinking beyond carrots and sticks. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 34(4), 192–213. doi:10.1108/JMP-06-2018-0255.
[31] Sharma, S., Bhardwaj, S., & Gupta, B. (2023). Algorithmic Control: A Disruption to Motivation of Gig Workers? A Critical Review. Contributions to Management Science, 1–14. doi:10.1007/978-3-031-23432-3_1.
[32] Lee, S. W. (2024). Fostering Engagement in the Gig Economy: The Impact of JD-R Model. Pakistan Journal of Life and Social Sciences (PJLSS), 22(2). doi:10.57239/pjlss-2024-22.2.001073.
[33] Pilatti, G., Candia, C., Montini, A., & Pinheiro, F. L. (2023). From co-location patterns to an informal social network of gig economy workers. Applied Network Science, 8(1), 77. doi:10.1007/s41109-023-00603-1.
[34] Schou, P. K., & Bucher, E. (2023). Divided we fall: The breakdown of gig worker solidarity in online communities. New Technology, Work and Employment, 38(3), 472–492. doi:10.1111/ntwe.12260.
[35] Butschek, S., González Amor, R., Kampkötter, P., & Sliwka, D. (2022). Motivating gig workers – evidence from a field experiment. Labour Economics, 75, 102105. doi:10.1016/j.labeco.2021.102105.
[36] Mukhopadhyay, B. R., & Chatwin, C. (2020). Your driver is DiDi and minutes away from your pick-up point’: Understanding employee motivation in the gig economy of China. International Journal of Developing and Emerging Economies, 8(1), 1-16.
[37] Lata, L. N., Burdon, J., & Reddel, T. (2023). New tech, old exploitation: Gig economy, algorithmic control and migrant labour. Sociology Compass, 17(1), 13028. doi:10.1111/soc4.13028.
[38] George, A. S. (2024). Gig Economy 2.0: Examining How Smart Technologies Could Revolutionize On-Demand Work. Partners Universal Innovative Research Publication, 2(4), 24–29. doi:10.5281/ZENODO.13334926.
[39] Khan, A. N., & Khan, N. A. (2024). The gig economy’s secret weapon: ChatGPT. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 209, 123808. doi:10.1016/j.techfore.2024.123808.
[40] Alauddin, F. D. A., Aman, A., Ghazali, M. F., & Daud, S. (2025). The influence of digital platforms on gig workers: A systematic literature review. Heliyon, 11(1), 41491. doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e41491.
[41] Gussek, L., & Wiesche, M. (2023). IT Professionals in the Gig Economy: The Success of IT Freelancers on Digital Labor Platforms. Business & Information Systems Engineering, 65(5), 555–575. doi:10.1007/s12599-023-00812-z.
[42] Pazim, K. H., Uchiyama, Y., Furuoka, F., Lim, B., & Li, J. (2023). Digitalization and the Gig Economy. Digitalization and Development, 173–188, Routledge, Milton Park, United Kingdom. doi:10.4324/9781003367093-10.
[43] Vučeković, M., Avlijaš, G., Marković, M. R., Radulović, D., Dragojević, A., & Marković, D. (2023). The relationship between working in the “gig” economy and perceived subjective well-being in Western Balkan countries. Frontiers in Psychology, 14, 1180532. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1180532.
[44] Mohd Nasir, N. N. A., Norwani, N. M., Ismail, Z., Yusof, R., & Jamaluddin, N. S. (2024). The Determinants factors of Gig Economy Workers: A Review of Research Framework. International Journal of Academic Research in Economics and Management Sciences, 13(3), 426–433. doi:10.6007/ijarems/v13-i3/22514.
[45] Yousef, M. (2024). Navigating the Gig Economy: Evolution, Economic Impact, and Future Trends. Achieving Sustainable Business Through AI, Technology Education and Computer Science, Studies in Big Data, 159, Springer, Cham, Switzerland. doi:10.1007/978-3-031-71213-5_57.
[46] Herrmann, A. M., Zaal, P. M., Chappin, M. M. H., Schemmann, B., & Lühmann, A. (2023). “We don’t need no (higher) education” - How the gig economy challenges the education-income paradigm. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 186, 122136. doi:10.1016/j.techfore.2022.122136.
[47] Meijerink, J., Fisher, S., McDonnell, A., & Wiblen, S. (2024). Two’s company, platforms make a crowd: Talent identification in tripartite work arrangements in the gig economy. Human Resource Management Review, 34(2), 101011. doi:10.1016/j.hrmr.2024.101011.
[48] Zwettler, C., Straub, C., & Spurk, D. (2024). Kicking off a Gig Work Career: Unfolding a Career Learning Cycle of Gig Workers. Journal of Career Assessment, 32(4), 650–677. doi:10.1177/10690727231212188.
[49] Duffy, B. E. (2017). (Not) Getting Paid to Do What You Love. Yale University Press, New Haven, United States. doi:10.12987/yale/9780300218176.001.0001.
[50] Gussek, L., & Wiesche, M. (2022). The gig economy: Workers, work and platform perspective. 17th International Conference on Wirtschaftsinformatik, 21-23 February, Nuremberg, Germany.
[51] FIVERR. (2025). Our freelancers will take it from here. Fiverr International Ltd., Tel Aviv, Israel. Available online: https://www.fiverr.com/?source=top_nav (accessed on July 2025).
[52] Hair, J. F., Hult, G. T. M., Ringle, C. M., Sarstedt, M., Danks, N. P., & Ray, S. (2021). Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) Using R. In Classroom Companion: Business. Springer International Publishing, Cham, Switzerland. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-80519-7.
[53] Magno, F., Cassia, F., & Ringle, C. M. (2024). A brief review of partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) use in quality management studies. TQM Journal, 36(5), 1242–1251. doi:10.1108/TQM-06-2022-0197.
[54] Ringle, C. M., Sarstedt, M., Sinkovics, N., & Sinkovics, R. R. (2023). A perspective on using partial least squares structural equation modelling in data articles. Data in Brief, 48, 109074. doi:10.1016/j.dib.2023.109074.
[55] Henseler, J., Hubona, G., & Ray, P. A. (2016). Using PLS path modeling in new technology research: Updated guidelines. Industrial Management & Data Systems, 116(1), 2–20. doi:10.1108/IMDS-09-2015-0382.
[56] Nunnally, J. C., & Bernstein, I. H. (1994). Psychometric theory (3rd Ed.). McGraw-Hill, New York, United States.
- This work (including HTML and PDF Files) is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
